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Forest Policy and Economics xxx (xxxx) xxx

Please cite this article as: Vincent Nijman, Forest Policy and Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2021.102626

1389-9341/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Inaccuracies in the reporting of volume and monetary value of large-scale
rosewood seizures

Vincent Nijman a, Penthai Siriwat a, *, Chris R. Shepherd b

a Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, OX3 0BP Oxford, UK
b Monitor Conservation Research Society (Monitor), Box 200, Big Lake Ranch, B.C. V0L 1G0, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords
China
CITES
Dalbergia
Forestry management
Hongmu
Illegal wildlife trade

A B S T R A C T

It is increasingly realised that for a proper understanding of the illegal aspects of the international timber trade
sound data on seizures is needed. Their value, however, may be greatly diminished in the absence of accurate
reporting. International trade in rosewood is regulated through CITES, with large amounts trafficked illegally,
and annually thousands of seizures are made. Unfamiliarity with the differences between ton and tonne as a unit
of mass —the former equalling 907 kg and the latter 1000 kg and this is unrelated to US vs UK English spelling—
has led to misreporting. Only the tonne is accepted by the Système international (and given the symbol t). Eighty-
three independent reports of 19 large-scale rosewood seizures from nine countries (2013− 2021) referred to mass
in tonnes 48 times and in tons 35 times, without any conversion having taken place. The monetary value of
rosewood in these seizures differed US$3246 t− 1 depending on whether ton or tonnes were used. Accurate
reporting and conversion of mass to the same unit there where needed is especially relevant when presenting
aggregate analyses of the illegal timber trade.

1. Introduction

In terms of monetary value, the legal timber trade is the most
important aspect of the global wildlife trade. In 2019 it was valued at
~US$244 billion year− 1, with fisheries coming second at ~US$151
year− 1 (Nijman, 2021). When it comes to the illegal wildlife trade the
monetary value is difficult to establish (t’ Sas-Rolfes et al. (2019) gives a
range of US$7–21 billion year− 1) but according to the United Nations
Office of Drugs and Crime timber comprises 44.7% of the total value of
seized wildlife, compared to for instance 5.5% for rhinos and rhino horn
(UNODC, 2020). For proper management of forestry resources and in
order to regulate legal international trade, it is important to have a
sound understanding of the illegal aspects of this trade, especially in
times of crisis. The illegal wildlife trade, the regulation of international
legal trade in high-value timbers, corruption, and how this affects on-
the-ground management has received increased attention in recent
years (Chimeli et al., 2012; Lowe et al., 2016; Dumenu, 2019; Fukush-
ima et al., 2020). Seizure data are a vital source of information to gain
these insights. But their value may be greatly diminished in the absence
of accurate reporting. Under-reporting or not reporting at all, double
counting, using incorrect measurements, inappropriate grouping of

unrelated items / species, and the use of unrealistic, often inflated,
prices have been flagged up as issues that lessen the veracity of illegal
trade and seizure reports (cf. Broad et al., 2002; Nijman, 2014; Phelps
and Webb, 2015). It has also been noted that getting one’s units right is
vital, be it when reporting on wildlife trade, when sending rockets to
Mars or when modelling sea surface temperatures (e.g., Chan et al.,
2019; Shepherd and Nijman, 2021).

The rosewoods are a group of tree species that are affected by un-
regulated and illegal trade (Wenbin and Xiufang, 2013; Ratsimbazafy
et al., 2016; Waeber et al., 2019; Wilmé et al., 2020). In the timber trade,
rosewoods or hongmu (meaning ‘red wood’ in Mandarin) mostly refers
to a list of 33 species from five genera (Dalbergia, Pterocarpus, Diospyros,
Cassia and Millitia) with a global distribution. Hongmu is characterised
by a unique, deep-red colouring, aromatic scent and excellent durability.
Over the last decade, the demand for rosewood to be used in the pro-
duction of luxurious furniture in China and Vietnam has led to an in-
crease in global trade.

Recognising the threat that international trade pose to rosewoods,
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) has implemented a series of decisions con-
cerning rosewood, including the listing of all Dalbergia species in its

* Corresponding author at: Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, OX3 0BP Oxford, UK.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Siriwat).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Forest Policy and Economics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forpol

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2021.102626
Received 6 August 2021; Received in revised form 12 October 2021; Accepted 15 October 2021

Forest Policy and Economics xxx (xxxx) xxx

2

Appendix II, thereby regulating international trade (Brazilian rosewood
D. nigra is listed on Appendix I, precluding international trade). The
rampant unregulated logging in 2000s, combined with domestic civil
unrest shined a particular spotlight on the impact and lasting conse-
quence of unregulated rosewood logging in Madagascar (Waeber et al.,
2018; Waeber et al., 2019). At present, the issue surrounding the
stockpile management of Malagasy rosewood still remains highly con-
tested (Waeber et al., 2018; Wilmé and Waeber, 2019). Consequences of
rosewood deforestation targeting developing nations have also spread
elsewhere; in Ghana, despite comprehensive ban on rosewood logging
implemented in March 2019, there have been persistent illegal extrac-
tion of rosewood with complex links to political and governance issues
(Kansanga et al., 2021), while in Senegal, situation of illegal logging in
the region of Casamance forests has led several international NGOs to
lodge a criminal complaint before the Swiss War Crimes Unit (EIA, 2020;
Martini and Sarliève, 2021).

Unbeknownst to many, as a unit of mass, there are three types of
tons, viz. the tonne, the short ton, and the long ton. The tonne, used in
most of the world, equals 1000.0 kg; it is also referred to as a metric
tonne or a metric ton. The short ton, frequently used in the USA, equals
2000 pounds or 907.2 kg. The long ton, used in the UK and other
Commonwealth Nations that continue to use the Imperial system, equals
160 stone or 2240 pounds, and this equals 1016.0 kg. Note that these
conversions are based the Imperial pound equalling 454 g, whereas
countries where Germanic languages other than English are spoken, a
‘Pfund’, ‘pond’, ‘pund’, etc. equals 500 g. Only the tonne is accepted by
the Système international and should be abbreviated as a t (the official SI
unit is megagram, Mg). The long ton and the short ton are not accepted
by the SI. A ton or a tonne is not related to US / American English and UK
/ British English spelling, and tonnes is not the plural of ton.

In addition to being a measure of mass, the ton is also a unit of
volume, such as the freight ton used commonly in the USA for
(container) shipments in large vehicles, trains or ships, or the cubic ton.
The freight ton has a volume of 1.133 m3 and for rosewood the cubic ton
equates to 1.416 m3 (EIA, 2014a).

In early 2021, Nijman and Shepherd (2021) brough to light that the
confusion between a tonne and a ton may have led to errors in reporting
quantities in the illegal wildlife trade. Nijman and Shepherd (2021)
zoomed in on five large seizures of pangolins, small mammals which are
traded for their meat and keratin scales and counted how many news
items reported its quantities correctly. From this they concluded that
about half of the news items underreported the trade by between 9 and
12% leading to a significant underestimate of the total number of ani-
mals being trafficked and being seized (in the order of 10,000 animals
year− 1). Here we focus on rosewood seizures and how the confusion
between measurements of mass may affect our understanding of the
trade in these valuable timber species.

Nijman and Shepherd (2021) focussed mainly on Asia, where au-
thorities report seizures firstly in tonnes, and subsequent errors in con-
version and reporting mostly led to underestimating. They argued to for
other wildlife commodities (ivory, shells, fish) in trade that are traded
primarily in regions where the authorities firstly report seizures in tons,
such as the USA, one would expect to see an overestimation of reported
quantities. Inconsistencies in reporting volumes are not uncommon,
especially when dealing with the complex nature of wildlife trade. The
CITES Trade Database, even as one of the most comprehensive global
databases regulating wildlife trade, often faces issues revolving around
the inconsistencies of reporting between parties, reporting using mul-
tiple unstandardized measurement units, as well as identifications of
different taxonomic levels (Foster et al., 2016; Robinson and Sinovas,
2018; Andersson et al., 2021).

The traded form of timber, in particular, also compounds the
complexity in reporting (Liu et al., 2020. In an analysis of raw logs and
lumber trade in China from 2002 to 2018, there were widespread trade
discrepancies at the disaggregated levels (Liu et al., 2020). Furthermore,
there were significant differences of trade discrepancies between

tropical and non-tropical countries, and this was mainly attributable to
intentional misclassification and misreporting (Liu et al., 2020).

Large quantities of rosewood are seized in Asia but also in Africa and
South America (UNODC, 2016, 2020), and we expect a complex pattern
(underestimating, overestimating and both under- and overestimating
depending on the region the seizures are made) if indeed errors in
reporting are frequent. The errors can have implications for our un-
derstanding of the magnitude and significance of the illegal rosewood
trade. Rosewood seizure reports commonly include retail or wholesale
prices for the seizure as a whole. Local legislation, and how it deals with
fines or custodial sentences can, in part, be guided by the value of the
timber that was seized. Inaccuracies in reports dealing with rosewood
thus not only affects our understanding on the monetary values of this
trade, but it also has broader legal and societal implications.

2. Methods

In June and July 2021 we conducted an Internet search for news
reports of large-scale rosewood seizures or prosecutions related to large
scale rosewood seizures in the last eight years (i.e., starting in July
2013). In July 2013 the listing of Siamese rosewood Dalbergia cochin-
chinensis on Appendix II of CITES came into effect, following the decision
taken at the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Bangkok in
March 2013, thus providing an appropriate starting point of our study.
We used Google and Google Scholar, and in the first instance we used
“rosewood” or “hongmu” in combination with “seiz*”. “confiscate*” and
“ton*”. Large-scale here means at least 2 t (i.e., 2000 kg), with the re-
ports indicating the mass in tonnes, t or tons (i.e., not in kg). We include
only English language reports as the confusion is language specific.
Reports that used the abbreviation tn were discarded as it was unclear if
this referred to tonnes or tons. The unit MT is used for Megaton, i.e.,
1000 t, but was occasionally used as an abbreviation for metric tonnes;
when the latter was specified (or could be deducted) we included it in
our analysis. A priori we excluded English language reports from
Thailand, as in the Thai language, ‘ton’ refers to log-shaped items, often
referring to raw logs (Siriwat and Nijman, 2018a, 2018b), and this may
have caused errors unrelated to the argument we make here.

For each seizure we noted date, location, mass, and, if present,
monetary value. We then used date, location, and other relevant infor-
mation (e.g., names of the arresting agencies) to search for other reports
of this seizure. This included ones that related to the prosecution of
offenders that were reported months later. We then noted whether there
were discrepancies in reporting of mass. For instance, a seizure of
rosewood in Hong Kong in October 2015 could be reported as 1008
tonnes , rounded off to 1000 tonnes, or changed to 1000 tons. Reports
include news items, technical reports and scientific articles, provided
the information referred to a specific seizure, thus excluding aggregate
reports. Seizures for which we only found one report were discarded as
this did not allow for discrepancies in reporting of mass to occur.

Monetary values of the total seizures were mostly reported in local
currencies, sometimes in combination of a US dollar value. We used the
local currency value, corrected it for inflation to June 2021, and then
converted this to US dollars, using the exchange rate of June 2021. We
then divided this by the mass of the seizure (in tonnes) to derive at a
monetary value for a tonne of rosewood. For those reports that gave
mass in two measurement (tons and tonnes) we calculated two monetary
values. Monetary values here refer to the value of the seized good at the
time and the location of the seizure and we excluded those values where
reporters clearly referred to what it would have been worth elsewhere
(e.g., “on the Chinese market”).

Given the global nature of the trade, with often multiple countries
being involved in seizures (e.g., rosewood from Madagascar that was
exported to China and that was intercepted in Tanzania), it was not
always possible to find the ‘first’ or ‘original’ source who reported the
seizure. If this was known, it would have been possible to check or
deduct in what measurement (ton or tonnes) the amount was reported.

V. Nijman et al.

Forest Policy and Economics xxx (xxxx) xxx

3

As such, we were not in a position to decide which measurement was
correct and in what direction any errors, if any, in reporting were (over-
or underestimation). Here we simply quantify for any given seizure how
many reported it in tonnes or t, and how many in ton.

3. Results

We found 19 rosewood seizures where the mass was given in tons/
tonnes, for which we found a total of 83 independent reports of mass
(mean 4.4 ± 3.5 reports seizure− 1). The range of independent reports for
individual seizures was from 2 (our lower limit) to 14. The seizures were
made in nine countries, i.e., seven in China (including Hong Kong), four
in Cambodia, two in Lao PDR and one each in Kenya, Mozambique,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Vietnam.

Slightly more reports were given in tonnes or t (48) than in tons (35)
(Table 1). For 14 of the seizures did we find the same (or very similar)
quantities reported in both tons and tonnes, without any conversion
having taken place. We found one case of a possible double conversion
concerning a seizure in Singapore on 3 June 2014 of 29,000 rosewood
logs from Madagascar. This was reported as 3000 t which may have
been converted to 3235 tons using in conversion of 0.9272 rather than
0.9072, which was then also reported as 3235 t, in addition to 3000 and
3372 tons. The greatest difference (3235 t vs 3000 tons) is 503 t.

The mean reported monetary value of seized rosewood, corrected for
inflation to June 2021, was US$20,209 ± SE US$4504 t− 1 considering
the higher quantities and mass being reported in tonnes and US$23,455
± SE US$5169 t− 1 considering the lower quantities and mass reported in
tons.

4. Discussion and policy recommendations

The same rosewood seizure was frequently reported in both tons and
tonnes without any conversions having taken place, using the two
measurement terms interchangeably. This may lead to both under and
overestimating the true nature of the volume of illegal trade. The sei-
zures came from a wide range of countries underscoring the global na-
ture of rosewood smuggling.

The wide range of monetary values for a tonne of rosewood reported
here is probably due to a number of factors. The year-on-year increase in
the value of rosewood exceeds inflation in most countries. While an
inflation correction to June 2021, as done here, addresses some of this,
calculated values from seizures made eight years ago tend to be lower
than ones calculated from seizures made in 2020. The reported value of

rosewood may refer to the wholesale value in the country where it was
seized, the wholesale value in the importing country, which often was
China, or it may refer to the value of processed rosewood in China.
Finally, as with mass there were some clear discrepancies in the reported
monetary values of specific seizures, with e.g., two near identical sei-
zures of Honduran rosewood D. stevensonii in Hong Kong (both a single
shipping container, with 29.2 t on 16 January 2018 and 29 t on 28 June
2018) were valued at HK$2.9 million and HK$1.15 million, respectively
(Anonymous, 2018a, 2018b).

While it is unclear whether the discrepancies are due to genuine
errors in reporting or are due to hitherto unknown reasons, there is a
possibility that it could also be done deliberately to conceal true values.
The issue surrounding management of stocks and stockpiles of CITES
listed wildlife remain a complex issue (Wilmé et al., 2020). In
Madagascar, for example, the lack of detailed information on the units of
stocks or seizures in official government records that range from tonnes,
cubic meters, number of logs or number of entire containers, could be an
intentional in order to leave room for potential manipulation (Ran-
driamalala, 2010). Even though since 2010 there has been further dis-
cussion on stock management, it is clear that each solution has its
sensitivities and complexities, especially so long as there is a lack of
transparency and accountability (Wilmé et al., 2020). This illustrates
that the discrepancies in small issues concerning units and volumes,
could lead to continual logging or persistent illegal trade in timber in
places like Madagascar and other tropical countries. There are broad
legal and societal implications not limited to biodiversity destruction,
but also poaching and wildlife trafficking, illegal mining and damage to
local villagers and communities (Patel, 2007; Wilmé et al., 2009).

Despite the intentions, when local reporting is unclear, this impacts
wider reporting, where some overview reports on the rosewood trade
show inconsistencies in reporting mass. In the methodological appendix
to the 2016 Global Crime Report, the UNODC states that one m3 of
rosewood weighs slightly more than one metric ton, and later a m3 of
Madagascar rosewood D. maritima is equated to a ton. It is also indicated
that for analysis tons were converted to kilograms, but it is not specified
if this equals 907, 1000 or 1016 kg. In the chapter on rosewood in the
report itself, ton(s) is used nine times and metric tons eight times
(UNODC, 2016) suggesting the former represents a short ton. The
Environmental Investigation Agency in a series of reports on rosewood
seizures, use tonnes (EIA, 2014b), tons (EIA, 2019, 2020), and tons
alongside cubic tons (EIA, 2014a). The mass of a cubic ton, and indeed a
freight ton as measures of volume, depends on the density of wood and
its moisture content. Thus, a cubic ton and a freight ton of dried Indian

Table 1
Seizures of rosewood, with mass given in tons or tonnes in at least two independent reports; when quantities differ, all are given.

Date Seizure location Value US$ tonne− 1 Quantity Number of reports in tonnes Number of reports in ton

3 vi 2014 Singapore 17,607–20,933 3000 / 3235 / 3372 6 5
8 × 2015 Hong Kong, China 1000 / 1008 4 1
26 v 2014 Mombasa, Kenya 11,712–16,562 500 / 640 / 642 6 8
2 iv 2014 Colombo, Sri Lanka 15,976–17,612 420 7 2
? xi 2013 Fuzhuo, China 39,995–44,159 350 1 1
27 i 2014 Zanzibar, Tanzania 110 2 1
17 xii 2014 Hong Kong, China 92 2 1
? v 2014 Pemba, Mozambique 90 1 1
? x 2013 Quang Ninh, Vietnam 30 1 1
23 xxii 2017 Nam Phao, Laos 30 0 2
16 i 2018 Hong Kong, China 13,533–15,040 29 / 29.23 6 2
28 vi 2018 Hong Kong, China 5370-5968 29 1 2
5 ii 2019 Hong Kong, China 17,837–19,651 26 2 1
6 vi 2018 Hong Kong, China 39,638–47,713 23.8 2 2
4 ix 2013 Khnar Sandai, Cambodia 21 2 0
12 xii 2013 Boten, Laos 20 2 0
19 viii 2014 Samraong, Cambodia 14 0 3
28 v 2013 Ou Klakmom, Cambodia 10 1 2
24 × 2014 Oddar Meanchey, Cambodia 10 2 0

48 35

Monetary values are calculated on the basis of reported values in local currencies that were corrected for inflation to June 2021, and then converted to US$.

V. Nijman et al.

Forest Policy and Economics xxx (xxxx) xxx

4

rosewood Dalbergia latifolia have a mass of ~1274 kg and ~ 1020 kg,
respectively. Other than the report by EIA (2014a) we did not come
across any other uses of cubic or freight tons for rosewood seizures.
However, given that rosewood is frequently seized in containers, where
freight tons are a commonly used measure of volume, it may be prudent
to ensure that the mass of seizures is indeed properly reported.

A sound understanding of both the volume and value of the illegal
aspects of the rosewood trade is vital for proper management of forestry
resources and to assess the effectiveness of domestic and international
trade regulations (Broad et al., 2002; Phelps and Webb, 2015). While our
searches give a good overview of the problem with reporting rosewood
seizures, and draw attention to its existence, but they did not allow us to
quantify the discrepancies or inconsistencies in reporting. We urge those
that report on seizures of rosewood, including those in the media, press
officers of universities and NGOs, government agencies and researchers,
to be more specific in what unit of mass they report. We prefer the use of
the SI approved tonne. However, given the evidently widespread use of
both tons and tonnes we do not expect this confusion to go away anytime
soon. We hope that bodies such as CITES and the UNODC will use only SI
approved units. For now, we strongly recommend that even when the
tonne is used it is defined (i.e., it equals 1000 kg). Likewise, when for
whatever reason another unit is chosen (long ton, short ton, freight ton,
cubic ton) this is also clearly defined, and a conversion into tonnes is
included alongside in the same report.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

We thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for constructive
comments and suggestions for improvement.

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Wk 8 Discussion (Due in 1 days) Urgent/Rosewood trafficking worsens in the Gambia.docx

Hunt, L. (2021, February 15). Rosewood trafficking worsens in the Gambia. China Dialogue. Retrieved April 26, 2022, from https://chinadialogue.net/en/nature/rosewood-trafficking-worsens-in-the-gambia/#:~:text=In%202019%2C%20the%20Gambia%20%E2%80%93%20Africa’s,antique%2Dstyle%20furniture%20and%20art.

https://chinadialogue.net/en/nature/rosewood-trafficking-worsens-in-the-gambia/#:~:text=In%202019%2C%20the%20Gambia%20%E2%80%93%20Africa’s,antique%2Dstyle%20furniture%20and%20art

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