Please answer the following question in three double spaced pages using Times New Roman 12 point font. DO NOT: (1) re-post the question (2) Put any names, dates or titles in the response. Please use a

Please answer the following question in three double spaced pages using Times New Roman 12 point font. DO NOT: (1) re-post the question (2) Put any names, dates or titles in the response. Please use a
CH APTER 7 The S pir it o f 1 676: T he I d en tity P olitic s o f “ W hite n ess” a nd Pre lu d e t o C olo nia l S ecessio n T he fa tu o us id ea th at th e r o uti n g o f th e P eq uo ts in th e 1 630s in d ic ate d s m ooth s a ilin g fo r th e s e ttl e rs in w hat th ey c alle d N ew E ngla nd b ecam e e v en m ore fo olis h w hen w ar e ru p te d o nce m ore in th e m id -1 670s. 1 A s e v er, s e ttl e rs w ere u p se t w hen e v id ence e m erg ed th at th e F re nch a nd th e D utc h w ere s e llin g “ guns, p ow der, s h o t,” a nd tr a d in g a nd th e l ik e “ w ith I n d ia ns to o ur g re at pre ju d ic e and str e ngth enin g and anim ati n g th e In d ia ns again st us.” T he auth o riti e s d em and ed th at n o b oats b e s o ld to i n d ig enes, p erh ap s h am perin g th eir e sc ap e f r o m e nsla v em ent a nd r o uti n g. T ho ugh th e s e ttl e rs h ad a rriv ed in N orth A meric a p urp orte d ly to e njo y r e lig io us l ib erty , in d ig eno us r e lig io us lib erty w as c urta ile d , th at is , “ w ors h ip to th eir fa ls e G ods o r to t h e D ev il” w as fo rb id den. Cath o lic s to o w ere re str a in ed : “no Je su it or sp ir itu al or e ccle sia sti c al p ers o n” w as a llo w ed to a lig ht o r a ny “ o rd ain ed b y th e a uth o rity o f th e P ope” w ere a llo w ed to “ co m e w ith in th is ju ris d ic ti o n.” T hey w ere to b e b arre d in iti a lly , a nd if th ey c am e a “ se co nd ti m e” th ey “ sh all b e p ut to D eath .” T he d eath p enalty f o r p ois o nin g p ro vid ed a f o re ta ste o f th eir r e al f e ars , w hile “ fir in g a nd b urn in g” w as i llu m in ati n gly r e p ro ved . 2 New s th en re ached L ond on o f th e “b lo ody In d ia n w ar fr o m M arc h ti ll A ugust 1 676.” H ig hlig hte d w as th e a lle gati o n th at if v ic ti m s w ere “ w om en, th ey fir s t fo rc ed th em to s a ti s fie t h eir filth y lu sts and th en m urth ere d th em .” 3 L ond oners fo cuse d no t o n th e fa ct th at th eir c o m patr io ts h ad in v ad ed a fo re ig n la nd a nd b egan to o ust a nd e nsla v e, g iv in g r is e to a fie rc e r e acti o n b ut in ste ad s tr e sse d “ N ew E ngla nd ’s p re se nt s u ffe rin gs u nd er th eir c ru el n eig hb orin g I n d ia ns.” 4 The pro m in ent Bosto nia n In cre ase M ath er la id dow n a ste ad y dru m fir e of p ro pagand a a gain st th e in d ig eno us, tr a cin g th eir p urp orte d p erfid y fr o m “ th e y ear 1 614 to th e y ear 1 675.” 5 Afte r E uro pean ru le h ad b een fa ste ned fir m ly u p on N ew E ngla nd , it w as c o nced ed th at i n d ig eno us “ cap ti v e w om en a nd c hild re n w ere so ld in to sla v ery ,” th at is , “ m ore th an fiv e h und re d ” w ere “ so ld in to s la v ery fr o m P ly m outh a lo ne” in w hat w as te rm ed “ K in g P hilip ’s w ar.” 6 R ati o naliz in g th is c rim e a gain st h um anity , th e P ly m outh e lite , i t w as a rg ued , a v erre d th at “ th e S achem of P asc anacutt” w as w ork in g w ith th e “F re nch again st th e E nglis h in N ew E ngla nd .” 7 S ti ll, e v en a fte r it a p peare d th at a n in d ig eno us r e v olt h ad b een q uelle d , o ne s e ttl e r w as sti ll sw eati n g a b out w hat a re sid ent te rm ed “ m any se cre t a tte m pts … b y e v il m in d ed p ers o ns to fir e th e to w n o f B osto n, te nd in g to th e d estr u cti o n” o f th at ra p id ly g ro w in g u rb an c ente r. 8 It tu rn s o ut th at th is d ep orta ti o n p olic y m ay h av e e xp orte d r e v olt. T he “ heath en p rin ce” w ho p erp etr a te d th ese “no to rio us and execra b le m urd ers and outr a ges” and so ught to “to ta lly d estr o y, e xti r p ate & e xp el s e ttl e rs ” w as to s e e h is c o m ra d es s o ld in to s la v ery , s e em in gly in Copyright © ${Date}. ${Publisher}. All rights reserved. Ja m aic a, w hic h w as a kin to p ourin g b oilin g o il o n a r a gin g f ir e . 9 T hus th e “ heath en m ale fa cto r, men, w om en a nd c hild re n” w ere “ se nte nced & c o nd em ned fo r p erp etu al s e rv itu d e,” 10 w here th ey c o uld th en p lo t a lo ngsid e u ngo vern ab le A fr ic ans. J a m aic a a ls o s e em ed to in v ite d is a ste r when i t a ccep te d e nsla v ed i n d ig enes f r o m F lo rid a. 11 Tho ugh n o w ad ays th ere is a k in d o f s ilo a nd s to vep ip e a p pro ach, s e p ara ti n g s c ru ti n y o f New E ngla nd fr o m e xam in ati o n o f th e C arib bean, th is w as n o t th e c ase in 1 676 in L ond on. A pam phle te er s a w p ara lle ls a b out w hat w as u nfo ld in g i n B arb ad os a t th e ti m e o f th e in d ig eno us re b ellio n d ue n o rth . “ O ur f e llo w s u b je cts ,” i t w as c o nclu d ed , b e i t n o rth o r s o uth , “ ta ste d o f th e sa m e c up .” 12 Both o f th ese se ttl e m ents had a p ro ble m , th o ugh in th e lo nger ru n th e m ore cap acio us main la nd h ad m ore p ote nti a l to p urc hase th e a lle gia nce o f p oor E uro peans b y fig hti n g m ore in d ig enes— sw ep t a sid e fo r th e m ost p art e arlie r in th e C arib bean— ta kin g th eir la nd , th en re d is tr ib uti n g i t. As m atte rs e v olv ed , th at a p pro ach w as ta ken w ith th e th ir d r e v olt fa ced b y L ond on, w hat has b een c alle d “ B aco n’s R eb ellio n,” a n a ssa ult o n th e c o lo nia l r e gim e i ts e lf. ( T his r e v olt a ls o und ers c o re s th e asin in ity o f assu m in g th at und er se ttl e r co lo nia lis m , a re v olt fr o m b elo w ta rg eti n g an elite is ip so fa cto rig hte o us: as in th is ep is o de, w hat m ay b e at is su e is th e su b alte rn ra gin g a gain st th e p re su m ed e lite ’s la ssitu d e in d is p osse ssin g th e d esig nate d ra cia l “o th er.” ) 13 In A ugust 1 676 th e d ecla ra ti o n b y N ath anie l B aco n a nd h is c o -c o nsp ir a to rs a ssa ile d th e go vern o r “ fo r h av in g p ro te cte d , fa v ore d a nd e m bold ened th e In d ia ns a gain st H is [M aje sty ’s ] most l o yal s u b je cts .” 14 B aco n’s b and h ad b een i n a s ta nd off w ith i n d ig enes o ver th e s te alin g o f th eir la nd ; th ere had b een b lo odsh ed and th e th ie v es, unhap py w ith th e p erc eiv ed la ck o f su p port pro vid ed by th e re gim e, re b elle d . 15 B aco n, th e rig ht- w in g populis t dem ago gue, esta b lis h ed a te m pla te th at s ti ll r e so nate s i n th e s u ccesso r r e gim e, th e U nite d S ta te s. O f c o urs e , he i s su ed a “ D ecla ra ti o n i n th e N am e o f th e P eo ple ” c harg in g th at th e g o vern o r h ad “ p ro te cte d , fa v oure d a nd [e m ]b old ened th e In d ia ns a gain st H is M aje sti e s lo yall su b je cts ,” w hile th o se who o ppose d h im w ere th e a ctu al “ tr a yte rs .” 16 I n ev ita b ly , h e w as a b le to m obiliz e h und re d s f o r his i ll- fa te d v entu re . 17 In c o ntr a st, th e r e gim e c harg ed B aco n a nd th e “ fiv e h und re d p ers o ns” w ho j o in ed h im w ith bein g “ w arlik e” a nd i m mers e d i n “ tr e aso n a nd r e b ellio n”— make th at “ hig h tr e aso n.” A “ th re e hund re d pound s ste rlin g” re w ard w as offe re d fo r in fo rm ati o n le ad in g to his cap tu re and co nv ic ti o n. 18 Govern o r W illia m B erk ele y fle d Ja m esto w n fo r A cco m ac, w here , sa id a su b se q uent analy st, h e fo und th e “ la st re fu ge o f th e lo yal c ause of V ir g in ia ,” w hic h in clu d ed “ th e b est, wealth ie st a nd m ost in flu enti a l in th e C olo ny.” Ir o nic ally , o ne o f h is s u p porte rs th ere in clu d ed Danie l J e nife r, a C ath o lic , w ed to A nnie T oft, th e “ w ealth ie st a nd p re tti e st w om an th en liv in g in th e e aste rn s h o re o f V ir g in ia .” 19 Baco n, it w as sa id afte r th e d ust had cle are d in 1 677, “d esc end ed o f an A ncie nt and Hono ura b le f a m ily ,” th o ugh a s s o o fte n h as b een th e c ase o n th is c o nti n ent, h e w as a b le to r a lly num ero us p oore r E uro peans acro ss cla ss lin es. H e w as w ell tr a v ele d , hav in g arriv ed in Copyright © ${Date}. ${Publisher}. All rights reserved. Vir g in ia th re e y ears e arlie r a nd b eco m in g p art o f th e p ote nt P riv y C ouncil. B ut w hen i n d ig enes atta cked his la nd ho ld in g, he w as o utr a ged , no t o nly at th em b ut w hat he th o ught w as th e pusilla nim ous r e sp onse o f th e g o vern o r. S o h e c ho se to l a unch h is o w n w ar. O ne c riti c c harg ed th at th is “ v ery h ard d rin ker … d ie d b y i m bib in g o r ta kin g i n to o m uch b ra nd y,” b ut i t w as m ore lik ely th at h e w as a ctu ally d ru nk w ith d re am s o f p ow er. 20 T he w ell- b orn y o ung p la nte r w as, acco rd in g to a tw enti e th -c entu ry co m menta to r, “m ore in te re ste d in fig hti n g In d ia ns th an re fo rm .” T his w as a c lo se c all, in th at h alf o f h is b and fo ught in d ig enes a nd th e o th er h alf fo ught th e r e gim e, to rc hin g J a m esto w n: th e c o lo ny’s c ap ita l w as to rc hed . 21 It w as r e p orte d a s “str a nge n ew s f r o m V ir g in ia ,” b ut a s th e c o nti n ent e v olv ed , i t w as n o t s o s tr a nge a t a ll. Baco n m ay h av e b een d efe ate d m ilita rily , b ut h e w on p oliti c ally , n o t u nlik e h is s u ccesso rs : th e s o -c alle d C onfe d era te S ta te s o f A meric a in 1 865. T ho usa nd s o f in d ig enes fle d , o penin g more la nd ; h und re d s w ere se nt in to se rv itu d e in B erm ud a. 22 T his o ccurre d d esp ite a tr e aty betw een “ V ir g in ia & th e P am unkey I n d ia ns,” i n v olv in g “ arti c le s o f p eace” d ir e cti n g th at th ese in d ig enes “ sh all n o t b e s o ld a s s la v es.” 23 T his w as o ne o f m any p acts b etw een s e ttl e rs a nd in d ig enes th at w ould b e i g no re d a nd v io la te d . The re b els w ante d m ore la nd o f th e in d ig eno us a nd d em and ed th at L ond on sh ed m ore blo od a nd tr e asu re to a tta in th is g o al. In re sp onse , L ond on in ched to w ard sa ti s fy in g re b el dem and s, b ut th at w as i n su ffic ie nt to s a te v ora cio us a p peti te s, w hic h l e d d ir e ctl y to 1 776. S ti ll, afte r th is u p ris in g m ore a nd m ore p la nte rs b egan to se e in d entu re d se rv ants , th e p re su m ed benefic ia ry o f th e re v olt, w ith th eir fix ed te rm s and a sse rte d rig hts , a s a lia b ility a nd to s e e ensla v ed A fr ic ans a s th e fu tu re . In s o m e w ays, w hat tr a nsp ir e d w as th at V ir g in ia w as fu rth er ra cia liz e d , w ith A fr ic ans a nd i n d ig enes b ein g th e p rim e v ic ti m s, w hile p oore r E uro peans w ere sa ti s fie d a t th e l a tte r’s e xp ense , 24 n o t l e ast th ro ugh th e o ngo in g i d enti ty p oliti c s o f c o nstr u cti n g “w hite ness.” Ir o nic ally , and as so ofte n hap pened in centu rie s to co m e, so m e te rrib ly mis g uid ed A fr ic ans a lig ned w ith th e s e ttl e rs le d b y B aco n a gain st th e in d ig enes, w hen h is to ry su ggests th eir in te re sts w ould h av e b een b ette r s e rv ed b y e xecu ti n g a d ia m etr ic ally o pposite str a te gy o f a lig nm ent w ith N ati v e A meric ans. The s e ttl e r e lite s w ere in a b in d . In d ig enes w ere r e b ellin g to th e n o rth a nd A fr ic ans to th e so uth . C oncessio ns to th e la tte r, p arti c ula rly in V ir g in ia , s e em ed to b e b eyo nd c o nsid era ti o n, th o ugh se iz in g th e la nd o f th e in d ig enes m ay h av e b een th e h ig hest p rio rity . In th at c o nte xt, win nin g o ver o th er E uro peans w as, m in im ally , th e “ le ast b ad ” o pti o n a nd p ro vid ed th e f e w est co m plic ati o ns. S ix y ears a fte r B aco n r e v olte d , th e a uth o riti e s in B aco n’s s e ttl e m ent w ere in a fa m ilia r positi o n: “I hav e bad new s,” it w as re p orte d . “T he peace of th e C olo ny” w as “end angere d b y u nru ly a nd tu m ultu o us p ers o ns” a nd “ le st th e in fe cti o n s h o uld s p re ad fu rth er, ord ers h av e b een is su ed to th e c o m mand ers o f th e m iliti a in e ach c o unty to … b e in c o nti n ual moti o n, by w hic h vig ila nce w e hav e so m e ho pe th at th e gro w th of in su rre cti o n m ay be pre v ente d .” 25 It w as a ls o in 1 682 th at p olic ym akers in J a m esto w n r e co gniz e d th at a s ta tu te p asse d m ere month s earlie r had no t “had its in te nd ed effe ct” ; th us “th e bette r pre v enti n g” of “su ch in su rre cti o ns by N egro es or sla v es” w as fo rm ula te d . H ow ev er, to atta in th is desp era te ly desir e d g o al, th ere w ould h av e to b e m ore c o ncessio ns to E uro peans o f v ario us c la sse s. 26 A s Copyright © ${Date}. ${Publisher}. All rights reserved. th is tr e nd b ecam e m anife st, th ere w as b oth a huge le ap in th e num ber o f ensla v ed and a co nco m ita nt in cre ase in sta tu te s se ekin g to sh ap e and re gula te th eir b ehav io r. 27 T his w as acco m panie d b y a g ro w th in w ealth , w hic h th en p av ed th e w ay fo r a u nila te ra l d ecla ra ti o n o f in d ep end ence i n 1 776. In th e l a te s e v ente enth c entu ry th e g ra nd ee o f V ir g in ia , W illia m B yrd , a m asse d a lm ost th ir ty th o usa nd acre s— at th e exp ense o f in d ig enes. H e sw itc hed enti r e ly to d ep lo yin g ensla v ed Afr ic an la b or in th e 1680s in th e afte rm ath of B aco n’s re v olt. Sla p pin g ta xes on th is tr o ub le so m e p ro perty n o t o nly r a is e d r e v enue f o r i n te rn al i m pro vem ents b ut a ls o w as d esig ned to re str a in th e p ossib ility o f a s la v e re b ellio n. A s th e n um ber o f e nsla v ed A fr ic ans ro se , th e num ber of E uro pean se rv ants declin ed . F ro m 1680 to 1720, th e sla v e popula ti o n of th e Chesa p eake i n cre ase d a t a r a te tw ic e th at o f th e E uro pean p opula ti o n, te nd in g to j e o pard iz e th e life exp ecta ncy o f th e la tte r. It w as in th e 1 690s th at th e te rm “w hite ” b egan to re p la ce “C hris ti a n” a nd fr e e,” w ith th is tr e nd c o nti n uin g th ro ugh th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry . A s s h all b e se en, th e “ G lo rio us R ev olu ti o n” o f 1 688 a ls o m eant th e i m min ent d eclin e o f th e R oyal A fr ic an Com pany u nd er th e th um b o f th e m onarc h, th e c o nti n uin g r is e o f m erc hants , a nd a s p ecta cula r in cre ase in th e n um ber o f e nsla v ed A fr ic ans, a lo ng w ith th e r e su lta nt w ealth a nd s e cessio nis t urg es. 28 Byrd e nco unte re d d iffic ulti e s w ith e nsla v ed A fr ic ans a nd h e w as n o t s in gula r. I n th e f a ll o f 1687 th ere w as th e “ d is c o very o f a N egro P lo t” in th e “ N orth ern N eck” o f th e c o lo ny th at in clu d ed th e “ d [e ] s tr o yin g a nd k illin g” o f s e ttl e rs , w ith th e “ d esig n” o f “ carry in g it th ro ugh [to ] th e w ho le C olo ny.” In ju jits u -lik e fa sh io n, A fr ic ans had begun plo tti n g as fu nera ls unw ound : th en th ey m et i n “ gre at n um bers ” to p lo t “ th eir E vil … [ a nd ] w ic ked p urp ose s.” 29 There w as an im plic it— if no t exp lic it— ra cia l bia s in th e co lo nia l pro je ct fr o m its in cep ti o n, th e o ppre ssio n o f p oore r E uro peans n o tw ith sta nd in g. W hen A fr ic ans, i n d ig enes, a nd poore r E uro peans b egan to r e b el s im ulta neo usly , s im ple s u rv iv al m eant c o ncessio ns to o ne o f th ese gro up s. In th is co nte xt, sc uttl in g th e asp ir a ti o ns of A fr ic ans and in d ig enes vers u s assu agin g p oore r E uro peans se em ed to b e th e o nly v ia b le o pti o ns g iv en th e m om entu m o f se ttl e r c o lo nia lis m , w hic h i n a ny c ase m eant m ore s e ttl e rs , p re su m ab ly E uro pean. For as th o se at th e su m mit of V ir g in ia so cie ty w ere w orry in g ab out th e “gro w th of in su rre cti o n,” i n n eig hb orin g C aro lin a s e ttl e rs w ere w arn ed to b e o n g uard a gain st “ th e N egro Sla v es,” w ho se “ la b our” w as o f “ p le nty ” b enefit b ut “ w ho se s e rv ic e d oub le s … [ in ]s e curity ,” meanin g s e ttl e rs ’ s e curity , p arti c ula rly i f a “ fo re ig ner s h o uld atte m pt to i n v ad e th em ,” w hic h i n th e s e v ente enth c entu ry w as a c o nsta nt th re at. T his o bse rv er h ad n o ti c ed th at “ se v era l f a m ilie s hav e tr a nsp orte d th em se lv es fr o m th e p orts o f B arb ad os” n o rth w ard , b ut it w as u ncle ar if th is gre at tr e k w ould s a v e th em . 30 Y et, d esp ite th e c le ar a nd p re se nt d anger p re se nte d b y b ein g in clo se p ro xim ity to a d is p ro porti o nate n um ber o f a ngry A fr ic ans, th e c hie f e xecuti v e i n J a m aic a co nti n ued to c all fo r “ o rd erin g u s s u p plie s o f N egro es a t re aso nab le ra te s.” 31 A t le ast fo r a while th e auth o riti e s co nti n ued to sh ip dis g ru ntl e d E uro peans to th e C arib bean, w ho se pre se nce c o uld p ro ve to b e u nse ttl in g. Ju st b efo re “ o rd erin g” m ore “ su p plie s o f N egro es,” co m pla in ts e m erg ed a b out “ gre at a b use s i n th e s p ir iti n g a w ay o f c hild re n” to th e C arib bean to to il and b e exp lo ite d . T his w as a “v ery sa d sto ry ,” it w as sa id , th o ugh— te llin gly — th o se Copyright © ${Date}. ${Publisher}. All rights reserved. vic ti m iz e d w ere d eno te d a s “ w hite s,” su p pla nti n g th e id enti ty o f “ C hris ti a n.” 32 C om pla in ts co nti n ued to ro ll in to W hite hall a b out th e “ fr e q uent a b use s” o f in v olv in g a “ so rt o f p eo ple calle d s p ir its , in s e d ucin g m any o f H is M aje sti e s S ub je cts to g o o n S hip board [w here ] th ey hav e b een s e iz e d a nd c arrie d b y fo rc e to H is M aje sti e s P la nta ti o ns in A meric a.” T his ro ugh hand lin g o f p oore r E uro peans i n c ro ssin g th e A tl a nti c c o uld s o ur th em tr e m end ously . B ut u p on arriv in g a nd f a cin g th e d is ti n ct p ossib ility o f u p ris in gs s p earh ead ed b y A fr ic ans a nd i n d ig enes th at d id n o t m ake c are fu l d is ti n cti o ns b etw een a nd a m ong E uro peans, a r a cia l s o lid arity c o uld be fo rg ed : th e e lite h ad d ev is e d a r a ce-b ase d d esp oti s m d riv in g th ese r e cent a rriv als in to th e arm s of th ese sa m e elite s, parti c ula rly afte r th e poore r se ttl e rs w ere gra nte d certa in co ncessio ns. 33 The unsu ita b ility of re lig io n as th e prim ary politi c s of id enti ty w as exp ose d w hen ad vocate s fo r A fr ic ans a nd in d ig enes in th e C arib bean b egan “ su in g fo r th eir a d m is sio n in to th e C hurc h” a nd c la m orin g i n w hat w as c o nsid ere d a “ p ers u asiv e” m anner f o r “ th e i n str u cti n g and b ap ti z in g o f th e N egro es and In d ia ns fo r o ur p la nta ti o ns.” 34 It w as easie r to co nv ert Afr ic ans i n to C hris ti a ns th an to s o m eho w m ake th em “ w hite .” But th is pro cess w as no t unco m plic ate d . Sub se q uentl y , Lond on so ught to fo rm an exclu siv ely “ w hite ” se ttl e m ent— th at is , Geo rg ia — whic h w ould ev ad e th e is su e o f fu rio us Afr ic ans, b ut th is d id n o t w ork v ery w ell, n o t o nly b ecause o f s m ugglin g o f s la v es b ut a ls o because it o nly re in tr o duced th e n ettl e so m e m atte r o f c la ss c o ntr a d ic ti o ns a m ong p oore r a nd wealth ie r E uro peans. N oneth ele ss, th is p ro je ct p ush ed o ut in d ig enes o ver ti m e w hic h w as a go al o f s e ttl e rs , i r re sp ecti v e o f th e s o urc e o f l a b or. It is im porta nt to re co gniz e th at th e a fte rm ath o f B aco n’s R eb ellio n, w hic h b ro ught le ss re lia nce o n i n d entu re d l a b or, m ore ta kin g o f i n d ig eno us l a nd , a nd m ore e nsla v ed A fr ic an l a b or, was n o t a r a d ic al d ep artu re fr o m p ast p ra xis — it r e p re se nte d a d eep enin g o f p ast p ra xis . W ith th e ta kin g o f J a m aic a in 1 655 a nd th e c o m in g o f th e s u gar b oom , th ere h ad b een a c o ncerte d effo rt to d ra go on m ore A fr ic ans and re lie v e th e b urd en o n sm all B arb ad os b y attr a cti n g Euro peans fr o m th ere to th is b ig ger is la nd . T he e sta b lis h m ent o f S outh C aro lin a in 1 670 a ls o deep ened th is p atte rn , p arti c ula rly i n th e o uste r a nd e nsla v em ent o f i n d ig enes, w hic h h ad b een a ty p ic al p ra cti c e b y s e ttl e rs fo r s o m e d ecad es. A nd y es, s o on a fte r a rriv in g in C aro lin a th ese ers tw hile B arb ad ia ns w ere b usily r a ti fy in g “ an a ct to p re v ent r u naw ays.” 35 Such p ra cti c es e sta b lis h ed a c ro ss-c la ss a llia nce b etw een a nd a m ong E uro pean s e ttl e rs , who bond ed on th e basis of “ra cia l id enti ty politi c s” — th at is , “w hite ness” and “w hite su p re m acy”— and th e l o oti n g o f a ll th o se n o t s o e nd ow ed . T his p ra cti c e e xte nd ed to 1 776 a nd its a fte rm ath , a nd a rg uab ly h ad i ts l a te st e xp re ssio n, a t l e ast i n te rm s o f u nd erly in g p re m is e a nd in te nt, in th e U nite d S ta te s in N ovem ber 2 016. P ost- 1 676, it w as e v id ent th at s e ttl e m ents , a nd th e new nati o n th at su cceed ed th em , w ere b ein g co nstr u cte d as a “w hite m an’s co untr y ,” effe cti v ely th e f ir s t a p arth eid s ta te , a f o rm id ab le h urd le th at e v en p ro gre ssiv e E uro -A meric ans hav e f o und d iffic ult to o verc o m e. OTH ER T R EN DS W ER E U N W IN DIN G sim ulta neo usly th at w ere fa v ora b le to co lo nia l se ttl e m ent. W ith th e h alti n g o f th e O tto m an T urk s a t th e g ate s o f V ie nna, 36 W este rn E uro peans Copyright © ${Date}. ${Publisher}. All rights reserved. co uld w orry le ss ab out bein g overru n and th us co uld dir e ct m ore re so urc es to se ttl e r co lo nia lis m . M ore o ver, w ith th e p re cip ito us d eclin e o f th eir M uslim fo e, th ey c o uld w orry l e ss ab out th eir n ati o nals b ein g s e iz e d a nd s o ld in to s la v ery a nd , c o nse q uentl y , c o uld e xp end m ore ti m e a nd e ffo rt i n s e iz in g a nd e nsla v in g A fr ic ans i n th e A meric as. W ith th e e ro sio n o f O tto m an in flu ence, th e im porta nce o f m ain ta in in g a sa lie nt re lig io us id enti ty d eclin ed in im porta nce, fa cilita ti n g th e c o m panio n r is e o f “ ra ce”— or “ w hite ness” — as a n id enti ty , w hic h u nd erg ir d ed se ttl e r c o lo nia lis m b ase d o n d is p osse ssio n o f i n d ig enes a nd e nsla v em ent o f A fr ic ans. This e p ochal s e tb ack f o r th e O tto m ans o ccurre d i n 1 683 b ut w as s ti ll b ein g c ele b ra te d w ell afte r th e f a ct, i n d ic ati v e o f i ts i m porta nce. A L ond oner, i n d ic ati n g th e P an-C hris ti a n i m porta nce of th is d efe at, h aile d th e “ p re v ale nce o f th e C hris ti a n a rm s a gain st th e i n fid els ” w ho “ fo r m any years h av e d elu ged th e o nce flo uris h in g p art o f E uro pe w ith b lo od,” a s if th e v ic to ry w as n o t th e H ab sb urg s’ a lo ne. 37 Even b efo re 1 683 th ere w ere s ig nals th at th e O tto m ans w ere in d eclin e. F ro m a c erta in pers p ecti v e, w hen th e su lta n cre ate d th e offic e of th e “C hie f B la ck E unuch” durin g th is tu m ultu o us e ra , th is e le v ati o n o f a n A fr ic an w as a n ir o nic s ig n o f w eakness a nd im pote nce. In th e la te s ix te enth c entu ry , th ey h ad c halle nged P ortu gal in M oza m biq ue— and flo pped . P ers ia had ti e d d ow n th e O tto m ans fo r th e fir s t fe w d ecad es o f th e s e v ente enth c entu ry , m eanin g th at well b efo re 1 683 th e W este rn E uro peans had b een fr e ed up to d ev asta te A fr ic a and th e Americ as w ith l ittl e w orry a b out b ein g a tta cked f r o m th e r e ar. E ven b efo re 1 683, th e O tto m ans had b een d iv erte d b y a T ata r-C ossa ck a llia nce, w hic h w eakened th is s p ra w lin g e m pir e f u rth er and , o bje cti v ely , s tr e ngth ened th o se to th eir w est. T heir y o uth le v y, th e r e cru iti n g o f C hris ti a n men to b e J a nis sa rie s, h ad a ll b ut c ease d b y th e m id dle o f th e s e v ente enth c entu ry , f r e ein g m ore of th is f a ith to j o in th e f r e e-fo r-a ll i n A fr ic a a nd th e A meric as. I n th e tw o d ecad es b efo re 1 683, th e O tto m an-H ab sb urg f r o nti e r w as q uie t, r e assu rin g th o se to th e w est. The 1 683 s e tb ack w as th us a c ulm in ati o n o f o ngo in g tr e nd s, m ad e a ll th e m ore p ow erfu l b y th e e xcla m ati o n p oin t fo rm ed in V ie nna. T his ig no m in io us d efe at w as o f g re at p sy cho lo gic al im porta nce fo r th e H ab sb urg s a nd th e w ho le o f E uro pe. T he ti d e o f O tto m an co nq uest s e em ed to b e r e ced in g, a nd i t w as n o t u nti l 1 917 w ith th e B ols h ev ik R ev olu ti o n th at s u ch a n e xis te nti a l th re at m anife ste d , a lb eit th is ti m e o n m ore s y ste m ic a nd id eo lo gic al— as o ppose d to r e lig io us —gro und s. B y 1 686 th e O tto m ans’ g rip o n B ud a w as lo ose ned . T hen in 1 688, a s L ond on w as und erg o in g th e tr a nsfo rm ati v e “G lo rio us R ev olu ti o n,” th e O tto m ans w ere lo sin g B elg ra d e, sig nalin g a n e ra o f d ecle nsio n th at e xte nd ed a t le ast u nti l th e e arly e ig hte enth c entu ry . A s th is em pir e d eclin ed a nd a c o m peti to r in L ond on ro se , F ra nce b egan to re p la ce E ngla nd a s th e Otto m ans’ d om in ant tr a d in g p artn er. E gyp t w as th e la rg est p ro vin ce o f th e O tto m an E m pir e and , fr o m its str a te gic lo cati o n o n th e m ain tr a d e ro ute s, th e ric hest. B ut b y th e e nd o f th e eig hte enth c entu ry , th is r u le w as i n d ir e j e o pard y a nd b y th en th e o nce p ro ud O tto m ans w ere e n ro ute to b eco m in g a v ir tu al p ro te cto ra te o f L ond on. T he T re aty o f K arlo w itz in 1 699 m ark ed th e b egin nin g o f th e e nd f o r th e O tto m an E m pir e , th o ugh i t w as a b le to h ang o n to a s e m bla nce of p ow er u nti l th e e nd o f th e F ir s t W orld W ar. B ut fo r o ur p urp ose s h ere , th e le sse nin g o f pre ssu re o n W este rn E uro pe— Lond on p arti c ula rly — meant th at 1 699 w as a ls o a d efe at fo r Afr ic a a nd th e A meric as. 38 Copyright © ${Date}. ${Publisher}. All rights reserved. Als o a d efe at fo r A fr ic a a nd th e A meric as w as th e n ego ti a ti o n o f a 1 675 p act b etw een Lond on a nd th e O tto m ans, w hic h w as re affir m ed in 1 809 a nd n o t te rm in ate d u nti l 1 924, a n in d ic ato r o f its p ote ncy. T here w ere s p ecia l p ro vis io ns o n w hat w as to o ccur if “ C ors a ir s o f Tunis ia and B arb ary … plu nd ere d and pilla ged ” tr a v elin g E nglis h su b je cts and , in d eed , “m ole st” th em . P ro vis io ns i n clu d ed w hat to d o “ if a ny E nglis h m an s h o uld tu rn T urk ”; th e b ro ad exp anse o f th is a cco rd in clu d ed A le xand ria . S tr ik in gly , th e e xceed in gly im porta nt p act w as ti tl e d th e “ F in al T re aty o f C ap itu la ti o ns.” 39 T he L ord P ro te cto r h ad se nt h is fo rc es in to th e Med ite rra nean d ecad es earlie r to chasti s e co rs a ir s , b ut ev en w ith th is “cap itu la ti o n,” th e em erg ent m ain la nd re p ub lic w ould sti ll b e d ogged b y th ese m ara ud ers in to th e nin ete enth centu ry . 40 Ju st a s in th e tw enti e th c entu ry c erta in E nglis h m en c ho se to a lly w ith M osc o w , L ond oners “tu rn in g T urk ” had been a pers is te nt pro ble m in th e se v ente enth centu ry . E xp ed iti n g th e re d em pti o n o f E nglis h sla v es h eld b y th e A lg eria ns a nd T unis ia ns, a n e m oti o nally w ra ckin g matte r, d ro ve L ond on’s n ego ti a to rs . 41 It w as N ew E ngla nd ’s C otto n M ath er w ho m oaned th at th is f o rm o f c ap ti v ity p erp etr a te d b y th e “ hellis h M oors ” — pre su m ab ly s e tti n g to th e s id e w hat was b efa llin g in d ig enes and A fr ic ans in his b ackyard — was “th e m ost ho rrib le … in th e world .” 42 W ith p re ssu re e ase d o n L ond on fr o m d ue s o uth a nd th e e ast, th e C ro w n c o uld m ore easily p lu nd er a nd p illa ge A fr ic a a nd th e A meric as. In a ny c ase , r e d em pti o n o f th e e nsla v ed E nglis h w as b ig b usin ess. A gain , th e e nsla v em ent of th e E nglis h d id n o t te nd to le ad to a b oliti o nis m , a t le ast in th e sh o rt te rm . In te re sti n gly , Lond on’s m an in C onsta nti n o ple , P aul R ycaut, w ho w as in v olv ed in s e ekin g to re sc ue th ese bond ed c o m patr io ts , w as a ls o a n i n v esto r i n th e A fr ic an S la v e T ra d e. 43 TH E E N SLAV IN G O F L O NDO NER S in th e M ed ite rra nean, w hic h w as o ngo in g in th e la te se v ente enth c entu ry , g av e E ngla nd m ore d ir e ct e xp erie nce i n b oth th e b ru ta lity a nd p ro fita b ility of b ond age, w ith th e la tte r fa cto r m ate ria liz in g a s d om in ant in s h ap in g th e o ngo in g a ssa ult o n Afr ic a. By 1 666 E m manuel D ’A ra nd a w as te llin g L ond oners a b out th e d asta rd ly “ T urk s” a nd “ ho w th e C hris ti a n s la v es a re b eate n a t A lg ie rs .” H e s p oke e lo quentl y o f r u naw ays, r e sis ta nce, a nd cru elty in a w ay th at m ir ro re d w hat E nglis h m en w ere th en in flic ti n g o n th e e nsla v ed A fr ic ans in th e s e ttl e m ents . 44 By 1 677, a s s la v e s h ip s b egan h ead in g to w ard W est A fr ic a m ore s y ste m ati c ally , L ond on so ught a cco rd w ith th e “ D uan o f th e N oble C ity o f T unis .” T here w as m utu al a gre em ent th at th ere w ould b e “ no s e iz u re o f a ny s h ip s o f e ith er p arty a t s e a o r in p ort” ; o rd in ary s e am en ta ken b y T unis w ere “ to b e m ad e sla v es” b ut n o t “ m erc hants o r p asse ngers ” — a ra w c la ss dis ti n cti o n. S la v es e sc ap in g T unis b y ju m pin g a b oard d ep arti n g s h ip s w ere to b e tr e ate d a s in d iffe re ntl y a s s e am en. 45 T hat a s im ila r tr e aty w ith T unis w as n ego ti a te d a f e w y ears e arlie r 46 su ggeste d th at m em orie s w ere s h o rt, filin g s y ste m s in ad eq uate , o r w ord s w ere in su ffic ie nt to und erm in e a d eep -s e ate d p ra cti c e. In 1 675 L ond on o nce m ore w as a ccusin g T unis a nd A lg ie rs o f c o nsp ir in g to “ ro b” h er su b je cts , a nd it w as d em and ed th at “ all s u ch E nglis h a s h

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