LITERATURE REVIEW (12-16 pages) This essay is basically synthesizing 10 sources to support the new research im proposing that needs to be done. The sources needs to be categorized into 3/4 subheadings

LITERATURE REVIEW (12-16 pages) This essay is basically synthesizing 10 sources to support the new research im proposing that needs to be done. The sources needs to be categorized into 3/4 subheadings
Jo u rn al o f M ed ia P sy ch olo g y: T h eo rie s, M eth od s, a n d A pplic a tio n s Effe ctiv e n ess o f a S ch ool-B ase d I n te rv e n tio n t o E m pow er Ch ild re n t o Cop e W it h A dve rtis in g Esth e r R oze nd aal a nd B ern d F ig ne r Onlin e F ir s t P u b lic atio n, S epte m ber 2 6 , 2 0 19. h ttp ://d x.d oi. o rg /1 0.1 027 /1 86 4-1 105/a 0 0026 2 CIT A TIO N Roze nd aal, E ., & F ig ne r, B . ( 2 0 19, S epte m ber 2 6 ). E ffe ctiv e ne ss o f a S cho ol- B ase d In te rv e ntio n t o Em pow er C hild re n t o Cope W it h A dve rtis in g . Jo urn al o f M edia P sy ch olo gy: T heorie s, M eth ods, and A pplic a tio ns . A dvance o nlin e p ub lic atio n. h ttp ://d x.d oi. o rg /1 0.1 027 /1 86 4-1 105/a 0 0026 2 Original Article Effectiveness of a School-Based Intervention to Empower Children to Cope With Advertising Esther Rozendaal and Bernd Figner Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Abstract:This study tested the effectiveness of a theory-driven, school-based advertising intervention entitled Ad Masters that aimed to stimulate children’s advertising coping behavior in the current media landscape. A cluster randomized controlled trial was completed among 704 children (7–12 years old) in schools. The schools were allocated to either the intervention group (n= 399) or control group (n= 305). Both short-term (directly after the intervention) and long-term effects (3 months after the end of the intervention) were measured. Bayesian mixed- effect analyses showed positive short- and long-term effects of the intervention on children’s understanding of advertising’s tactics. Structural equation analysis showed that the intervention-induced changes in children’s understanding of advertising’s tactics were not related to any changes in their use of advertising coping strategies or their advertising susceptibility. No other intervention effects were found. However, structural equation analyses showed that, regardless of the intervention, motivation and ability to use advertising coping strategies are both associated with children’s actual coping behavior. These findings indicate that motivation and ability to effectively use advertising coping strategies are important empowering factors that should be taken into account in future research on children’s advertising coping behavior and in advertising intervention development. Keywords:advertising, children, intervention, advertising literacy, coping strategies Today’s children are facing a media environment increas- ingly saturated with advertising. Research has demon- strated that this increased commercialization of the media environment stimulates children’s desire of advertised products, which can have undesirable consequences for their well-being (e.g., materialism, parent–child conflict, unhealthy food preferences; e.g., Buijzen & Valkenburg, 2003). Additionally, issues of fairness have been raised, because children’s advertising-related knowledge is still underdeveloped (Kunkel et al.,2004). Having knowledge of advertising is considered to be a necessary precondition for children to cope with advertising, because it is only whentheyareabletorecognizeamessageasaformof advertising that they will have the opportunity to enact cer- tain coping strategies. These issues of fairness are even more severe in the contemporary media environment, which is characterized by subtle advertising formats that are integrated in entertainment. Children have great diffi- culty recognizing the commercial nature of these practices (DeJans,VandeSompel,Hudders,&Cauberghe,2019). As a result of these concerns, there is an increasing call for the development of educational interventions to empower children as consumers (Nelson,2016). Over the past few years, a number of intervention programs havebeen implemented (e.g., http://www.mediasmart.uk.com; http://www.admongo.org). These programs focus primarily on increasing children’s advertising knowledge, also referred to asadvertising literacy(Hudders et al.,2017; Rozendaal, Lapierre, Van Reijmersdal, & Buijzen,2011). Although such interventions indeed are effective in increas- ing advertising literacy (e.g., Jeong, Cho, & Hwang,2012; Nelson,2016),researchindicatesthatthisdoesnotauto- matically enable children to cope with advertising (Living- stone & Helsper,2006;Nairn&Fine,2008; Rozendaal et al.,2011). To cope with advertising successfully, children need to engage in advertising coping strategies (e.g., avoid- ance, formulate critical thoughts). However, insights regarding children’s advertising processing (Buijzen, Van Reijmersdal, & Owen,2010) and cognitive development (Brucks, Armstrong, & Goldberg,1988; Moses & Baldwin, 2005) suggest that, due to the powerful emotional appeal of advertising, combined with children’simmaturecogni- tive abilities, children will not be motivated or able to use their coping strategies. To stimulate children’s advertising coping skills, interventions should therefore not only increase their advertising literacy (i.e., awareness and understanding of advertising), but also provide them with the motivation and ability to effectively enact their coping 2019 Hogrefe PublishingJournal of Media Psychology(2019) https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000262 strategies. Thus far, no advertising interventions exist that focus on all three components (i.e., advertising literacy, motivation, and ability). The current study addresses this gap by testing the effec- tiveness of a new theory-driven, school-based intervention entitled Ad Masters. The proposed intervention is funda- mentally different from existing advertising interventions in that it is designed to not only increase children’s adver- tising literacy, but also toactually change the way they respond to advertising by increasing their motivation and ability to cope with advertising. To this end, the interven- tion uses an unconventional combination of theory-based behavior change techniques (self-persuasion, emotion labeling, and implementation intentions) from the field of persuasive communication and social and developmental psychology. The intervention targets children in Grades 3–5in elementary school (approximately8–11years of age), because children in this age range still have major difficulty enacting advertising coping strategies, but already possess the sociocognitive skills that are necessary to participate in the proposed intervention program (Moses & Baldwin,2005). Theoretical Framework Motivation to Cope With Advertising A common technique used in persuasion research to motivate people to change their behavior is by providing arguments of why it is important to change. However, when faced with counter-attitudinal arguments, most people will not comply (Aronson,1999). Therefore, it is expected that providing children with arguments of why it is important to critically cope with advertising (to which they generally hold positive attitudes; e.g., Rozendaal, Slot, Van Reijmersdal, & Buijzen,2013) will not motivate them to activate coping strategies. Self-persuasion may overcome this problem (Aronson, 1999). Self-persuasion stems from Festinger’scognitive dissonance theory (Festinger,1957), which states that disso- nance (an unpleasant feeling) is aroused when individuals notice inconsistency between their attitudes and their behavior. To reduce dissonance, people try to restore bal- ance by changing their attitudes or behavior. Self-persua- sion uses this principle by asking people to argue in favor of a desired behavior (“Write down two arguments that stress why it’s important to be critical about advertising”). Once a relevant situation occurs (when confronted with advertising), people have the tendency to rely on these self-generated arguments in order to avoid dissonance. Self-persuasion is a powerful technique because it increases people’s intrinsic motivation to change(Mussweiler & Neumann,2000). It has been shown to be effective in a wide variety of contexts (e.g., condom use, smoking behavior, alcohol use; Banerjee & Greene,2007; Briñol, McCaslin, & Petty,2012;Mülleretal.,2009), yet has not been applied in the context of advertising or with children. Children as young as4can already experience dissonance (Egan, Santos, & Bloom,2007). Therefore, self-persuasion may be an effective intervention technique to increase children’s motivation to enact advertising coping strategies. Ability to Cope With Advertising Children’s ability to cope with advertising depends largely on their cognitive skills (Moses & Baldwin,2005). To cope with advertising, children need to have the cognitive control to stop their initial emotional responses to the advertising message and instead react alternatively (i.e., enact coping strategies). This process is also referred to as thestop- and-think response(Rozendaal et al.,2011), since it requires that children control their emotional responses to the advertisement (i.e., stop) and then enact a strategy to help cope with advertising (i.e., think). Thestoppart of the stop-and-think response is closely linked to children’s emotion regulation skills (Rozendaal et al.,2011). Emotion regulation refers to the processes that aid in the experience, monitoring, and control of emotions (Gross,1998), and does not reach adult levels until late ado- lescence (Diamond,2002). Emotion regulation is expected to play an important role in children’s ability to stop and think about advertisements, particularly because so much of the content in contemporary advertisements is centered on emotional cues. Children with less of an ability to control affect via emotion regulation will be overwhelmed by the emotional cues in advertising and, therefore, less able to enact their advertising coping strategies. Prior research has shown that children with lower emotion regulation skills are indeed more susceptible to advertising (Lapierre, 2013). Although emotion regulation skills naturally develop when children mature, research has shown that these skills are trainable and can be improved at any age (e.g., Greenberg, Kusche, Cook, & Quamma,1995; Izard et al., 2008). Social–emotional development programs (e.g., PATHS; Greenberg et al.,1995; Head Start, Izard et al., 2008; mindfulness, van de Weijer-Bergsma, Langenberg, Brandsma, Oort, & Bögels,2014) offer useful techniques in this respect. In these programs, children learn to become aware of and express their emotions. The premise behind this is that increasing children’s ability to understand and label their feeling states or emotion experiences will increase their conscious control of them (Izard et al., 2008, Greenberg et al.,1995). Thus, the labeling of Journal of Media Psychology(2019) 2019 Hogrefe Publishing 2 E. Rozendaal & B. Figner, School-Based Advertising Intervention for Children emotionsmaybeaneffectiveinterventiontechniqueto increase children’s ability to cope with advertising, because it increases their emotion regulation which can facilitate the “stop”part of the stop-and-think response. Once children are able to control their emotional responses toward an appealing advertisement, they also need to be able to enact a script or strategy to cope with the advertisement (i.e., thethinkpart of stop and think). This ability is closely linked to children’s information- processing abilities. Successful coping with advertising requires children to process the advertising message and, at the same time, activate and apply an effective coping strategy. Because children’s cognitive abilities are still maturing, they are unlikely to engage in such a high level of information processing. Instead, they are more likely to rely on simple cues or shortcuts, using low-effort mechanisms to respond to an advertising message (Buijzen et al.,2010; Rozendaal et al.,2011). A technique that could increase children’s ability to actu- ally enact their advertising coping strategies under condi- tions of low information processing is implementation intentions. Implementation intentions are simple if–then plans that specify when and how one’sgoalwillbeputinto practice (i.e.,“IfsituationXoccurs,thenIwillrespondin this way”; Gollwitzer,1999). With practice, this process can become a mental routine and subsequently lead to behavior change in relatively automatic ways, while using few cognitive resources. The efficacy of this behavior change technique has been demonstrated convincingly in various domains (e.g., Gollwitzer & Sheeran,2006; Hagger & Luszczynska,2014), yet has only recently been related to the goal of coping with advertising (Hudders et al.,2017). Implementation intentions may be a powerful interven- tion technique for increasing children’s ability to cope with advertising, as it can help them to actually enact a coping strategy (thethinkpart of stop and think) by relying on sim- ple and low-demand if–then rules. Hypotheses The Ad Masters intervention aims to increase the advertis- ing literacy (i.e., knowledge), motivation, and ability that children need to effectively cope with advertising by combining advertising literacy education methods with behavior-change techniques (i.e., self-persuasion, emotion labeling, and implementation intentions). It is expected that combining these techniques will yield a synergy effect, such that: Hypothesis1(H1): Children in the intervention condi- tion (as compared with controls) (a) have a higher level of advertising literacy, (b) have a higher motiva- tion to engage in advertising coping strategies, (c) have a higher ability to engage in advertisingcoping strategies, (d) are more likely to actually use advertising coping strategies, and (e) are less suscep- tible to advertising’s effects (i.e., advertised product desire and advertised product choice). Furthermore, based on insights from the persuasion and resistance literature (e.g., Knowles & Linn,2004), the fol- lowing mediation effects are hypothesized: Hypothesis2(H2): Children in the intervention condi- tion (as compared with controls) have a higher moti- vation to engage in advertising coping strategies, which leads to an increase in their actual use of such strategies, which in turn diminishes their susceptibil- ity to advertising’s effects. Hypothesis3(H3): Children in the intervention condi- tion (as compared with controls) have a higher ability to engage in advertising coping strategies, which leads to an increase in their actual use of such strate- gies, which in turn diminishes their susceptibility to advertising’s effects. On the basis of earlier research on the relation between children’s advertising literacy and advertising susceptibility (see Rozendaal et al.,2011), we did not have any strong the- oretical reason to expect that intervention-induced increases in advertising literacy (i.e., understanding intent and tactics) lead to any changes in their use of advertising coping strategies and advertising susceptibility. Method and Research Plan Study Design A two-arm parallel cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted among7-to12-year-old children of primary schools (Grades3–6). Randomization occurred at the school level to avoid contamination between conditions. Schools were allocated to one of the two conditions: (1)theAd Masters intervention or (2) the wait-list control condition. Children in the control condition followed the regular school curriculum and participated in the Ad Masters inter- vention after the posttest measurement. Children in both conditions completed questionnaires including pre- and posttest measurements during school hours before (base- line) and immediately after the intervention (6weeks after baseline). To measure long-term effects in the intervention condition, follow-up took place3months after the end of the intervention. The authors have preregistered this research with an analysis plan at theJournal of Media Psychology. 2019 Hogrefe PublishingJournal of Media Psychology(2019) E. Rozendaal & B. Figner, School-Based Advertising Intervention for Children 3 Participants The study was conducted in15schools in different urban and suburban regions of The Netherlands. Schools were recruited via the network of the Nationale Academie voor Media en Maatschappij (https://www.mediaenmaatschap- pij.nl), a well-known Dutch national media literacy organi- zation. The inclusion criterion was that the children had notparticipatedinanyadvertising-relatedintervention before. The final sample for the analysis included704chil- dren (48% girls) between7and12years old (M=9.22±SD =0.92), with399(57%) in the intervention and305(43%) in the control group. The sample size of this study was pre- specified based on an a priori power analysis computed in G*Power (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner,2007;see Electronic Supplementary Material, ESM1). Informed con- sent was obtained from schools and parents, and informed assent was obtained from the children. The intervention procedure received approval by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social Sciences at Radboud University, The Netherlands (ECSW2016-1403-382). Intervention The Ad Masters intervention consisted of six60-min ses- sions. The first three sessions aimed to increase advertising literacy based on educational techniques that are derived from the media and advertising literacy education literature (e.g., Nelson,2016) and existing advertising interventions (e.g., Media Smart). Children learned how to recognize dif- ferent forms of advertising and were taught about advertis- ing’s intent, source, and tactics. The fourth session aimed to increase children’s ability to cope with advertising, specifi- cally thestoppart of the stop-and-think response. By using the emotion labeling technique, children learned to become aware of and control their initial emotional responsestoward appealing advertisements. The fifth session also aimed to increase children’s ability to cope with advertising, now focusing on thethinkpart of the stop-and-think response. By using implementation intentions, they learned to actually enact their preferred advertising coping strategy. The final session aimed to stimulate children’s motivation to engage in advertising coping strategies by using the self-persuasion technique. See ESM2for a more detailed overview of the Ad Masters intervention. Measures Means and standard deviations of all measures for the intervention and control group at the three measurement time points are presented in Table1. The questionnaire consisted of57items, which are listed in ESM3.Cronbach’s avalues of all measures for all three measurement time point (pretest, posttest, and follow-up posttest) are pre- sented in ESM4. Susceptibility to Advertising Effects Children’s susceptibility to advertising effects was mea- sured as (a) children’s advertised product desire and (b) advertised product choice. In order to measure these adver- tising effects, children were first individually exposed to three different types of advertising (i.e., a commercial, an “unboxing”video on YouTube, and a brand placement in a vlog on YouTube). The advertisements showed brands that are popular among children. Two noncommercial media messages (i.e., a fragment from a TV show, a fragment from a YouTube vlog without brand placements) were included as fillers. The commercial and noncommer- cial media messages were shown in randomized order. After being exposed to all the media messages, the children were asked to make a shopping list in order to test their Table 1.Means and standard deviations of the main variables Pretest (Time 1) Posttest (Time 2) Follow-up (Time 3) Intervention Control Intervention Control Intervention Control M(SD)M(SD)M(SD)M(SD)M(SD)M(SD) Understanding selling intent 3.06 (0.74) 2.96 (0.78) 3.25 (0.64) 3.10 (0.72) 3.38 (0.63) 3.34 (0.64) Understanding persuasive intent 3.02 (0.75) 2.91 (0.78) 3.27 (0.71) 3.09 (0.75) 3.42 (0.65) 3.40 (0.68) Understanding persuasive tactics 2.89 (0.68) 2.81 (0.69) 3.20 (0.64) 2.97 (0.66) 3.31 (0.64) 3.31 (0.60) Advertising skepticism 3.28 (0.68) 3.17 (0.76) 3.43 (0.58) 3.30 (0.70) 3.45 (0.64) 3.42 (0.65) Advertising disliking 2.57 (0.75) 2.68 (0.76) 2.36 (0.61) 2.37 (0.70) 2.27 (0.67) 2.30 (0.65) Motivation to use coping strategies 0.74 (1.06) 0.70 (1.06) 1.03 (1.08) 1.13 (1.11) 1.22 (1.17) 1.41 (1.14) Ability to use coping strategies 3.05 (0.65) 3.02 (0.76) 3.24 (0.58) 3.19 (0.62) 3.30 (0.60) 3.29 (0.63) Use of coping strategies 2.84 (0.88) 3.00 (0.65) 2.96 (0.89) 2.99 (0.93) 2.99 (0.96) 3.03 (0.97) Advertised product desire 2.88 (0.68) 2.88 (0.65) 2.87 (0.59) 2.85 (0.63) 2.87 (0.63) 2.85 (0.65) Advertised product choice 1.85 (0.99) 1.93 (0.92) 1.85 (0.93) 1.81 (0.90) 1.79 (0.93) 1.84 (0.93) Journal of Media Psychology(2019) 2019 Hogrefe Publishing 4 E. Rozendaal & B. Figner, School-Based Advertising Intervention for Children (hypothetical) product choice. They were shown a list of20 food products (i.e., the three products that were promoted in the advertisements and17filler products). For each pro- duct they were asked whether they wanted to put it on their shopping list. The variable advertised product choice was constructed by summing the number of promoted products that were included on the shopping list. Since there were three advertised products, scores could range between0 and3. A higher score indicated more advertised products on the shopping list. After the product choice task, the children were asked to indicate how much they liked and how much they wanted to have eight different products (i.e., the three products that were promoted in the advertisements and five filler prod- ucts; Rozendaal et al.,2013; Van Reijmersdal, Rozendaal, &Buijzen,2012). To construct the variable advertised product desire, the items asking for children’s liking and desire for the three products that were promoted in the advertisements were averaged. Scores could range between 1(=notatall)and4(=very much). Use of Advertising Coping Strategies To measure children’s use of advertising coping strategies, a scale was developed based on earlier work on advertising coping strategies (Fransen, Smit, & Verlegh,2015;Rozen- daal, Opree, & Buijzen,2016). Four different advertising coping strategies were distinguished: cognitive avoidance (CA), mechanical avoidance (MA), negative affect (NA), and disbelief (DB). Children were asked how often they had used these strategies in the previous week. A total score for the use of advertising coping strategies was constructed by calculating an average across the four different strate- gies. Scores could range between1(=never)and5(=almost always). Motivation to Use Advertising Coping Strategies The measure for children’s motivation to use advertising coping strategies was based on the Self-Regulation Question- naire (SRQ; Ryan & Connell,1989), which assesses individ- ual differences in the types of motivation (i.e., extrinsic vs. intrinsic) to perform a certain behavior. The children were asked why they engage in each of the four different advertis- ing coping strategies, thereby making a distinction between extrinsic motivation (EM) and intrinsic motivation (IM). The motivation to use advertising coping strategies scale was created by subtracting the extrinsic motivation subscale from the intrinsic motivation subscale (Ryan & Connell, 1989). Thus, a total score for children’smotivationtouse advertising coping strategies was created by subtracting the average score for children’s extrinsic motivation to use the four advertising coping strategies from the average score for children’s intrinsic motivation to use the four coping strategies. Scores could range between 3and3.Ahigherpositive score means a higher intrinsic motivation and a higher negative score means a higher extrinsic motivation. Ability to Use Advertising Coping Strategies Children’s ability to use advertising coping strategies was measured by asking children to indicate the extent to which they believe in their own ability to use the different coping strategies outlined earlier (i.e., perceived self-efficacy; Bandura,1997). A total score for children’s ability to use advertising coping strategy was constructed by calculating an average across the four items. Scores could range between1 (=no, I’m certainly not able to do so)and4(= yes, I’m certainly able to do so). Advertising Literacy To measure children’s advertising literacy, several subscales of the advertising literacy scale for children (ALS-c; Rozendaal, Opree, & Buijzen,2016)wereused. Three components of conceptual advertising literacy were measured: understanding of selling intent (e.g.,“Is the purpose of advertising to make you buy the advertised products?”), understanding of persuasive intent (e.g.,“Is the purpose of advertising to make you feel good about the advertised products?”), and understanding of pers

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